Rasa Theory
विभावानुभावव्यभिचारिसंयोगाद्रसनिष्पत्तिः॥
Vibhāvānubhāva-vyabhicāri-saṃyogād rasa-niṣpattiḥ "Rasa is produced from the combination of Vibhāva (determinants), Anubhāva (consequents) and Vyabhicārī Bhāvas (transitory states)."
1. Introduction to Indian Poetics
Indian Poetics is traditionally called Kāvyaśāstra or Alaṅkāraśāstra. It is the study of literary theory in ancient and classical Indian thought. It explains the nature, purpose, structure, emotional impact and philosophical meaning of poetry and drama in Sanskrit and other classical Indian languages.
Western poetics often focuses on form and structure. Indian poetics focuses on aesthetic experience (rasa-anubhava), emotional evocation and suggested meaning (dhvani). It treats literature as a transformative experience, not only an artistic product. Its main concern is how a literary text affects the reader or spectator emotionally and spiritually.
Main branches (schools) of Indian Poetics
Core focus of Indian Poetics
• Understanding how literature creates emotional experience (rasa).
• Exploring the beauty of language through figures of speech (alaṅkāra).
• Examining how suggestion (dhvani) reveals deeper meaning.
• Emphasising the psychological, ethical and spiritual effects of literature.
• Treating art as a form of knowledge and bliss (ānanda) accessible to all.
A reader who can fully enjoy poetry is called a Sahṛdaya (one with a responsive heart). The Vedic seers already knew the need for sahṛdayatva. Vālmīki's grief at seeing a krauñca bird killed turned into the first śloka, and the intense pathos (karuṇa rasa) of the Rāmāyaṇa grew from it.
2. A Historical Sketch of Indian Poetics
• It begins with the Ṛgveda, whose poetic hymns carry symbolic meaning.
• The epics, Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata, show early rasa and poetic expression.
• Nāṭyaśāstra of Bharata is the foundation of Indian Poetics.
• Nāṭya is called the Pañcama Veda because it combines elements from all four Vedas.
• Key scholars: Bhāmaha (Alaṅkāra), Daṇḍin (Rīti), Ānandavardhana (Dhvani), Kuntaka (Vakrokti), Kṣemendra (Aucitya), then Abhinavagupta, Mammaṭa, Bhoja and Viśvanātha.
• There was a historical shift from sacred to aesthetic systems.
• Poetics evolved through performance, philosophy and audience impact.
3. The Theoretical Framework of Indian Poetics
• Rasa Theory (Bharata): nine rasas, emotion-focused aesthetics.
• Dhvani Theory (Ānandavardhana): suggested meaning over literal meaning.
• Vakrokti Theory (Kuntaka): indirect, creative expression adds beauty.
• Aucitya Theory (Kṣemendra): appropriateness ensures emotional harmony.
• Alaṅkāra Theory: figures of speech enhance rasa.
• Supporting concepts: Guṇa (qualities), Rīti (style), Doṣa (faults).
The framework is holistic. It combines philosophy, psychology and poetics.
4. Origin of the Nāṭyaśāstra
The Nāṭyaśāstra is regarded as the world's oldest surviving treatise on the performing arts. It is attributed to Bharata Muni, is divided into 36 chapters and contains about 6,000 verses. Scholars place Bharata between the 1st century BCE and the 3rd century CE; the exact date is uncertain. Rasa is discussed mainly in Chapters VI and VII.
The first chapter gives a semi-historical, purāṇic account of how the work came to be. At the end of the Kṛta Yuga and the start of the Tretā Yuga, people became addicted to base sentiments (grāmya-dharma) such as greed, desire, jealousy and anger, and their happiness was mixed with sorrow. The gods, led by Indra, approached Brahmā and asked for a form of entertainment that could be both seen and heard, and that all people could share:
महेन्द्रप्रमुखैर्देवैरुक्तः किल पितामहः ।
क्रीडनीयकमिच्छामो दृश्यं श्रव्यं च यद्भवेत् ॥
(नाट्यशास्त्रम् — 1.11 - नाट्यशास्त्रम् )
सरल अर्थ:
इन्द्र (महेन्द्र) आदि देवताओं ने ब्रह्माजी (पितामह) से निवेदन किया— "हम ऐसा क्रीडनीयक (मनोरंजन का साधन/खिलौना) चाहते हैं जो देखने योग्य (दृश्य) और सुनने योग्य (श्रव्य) दोनों हो।"
"We desire a pastime that can be both seen and heard."
Brahmā then created Nāṭya, drawing on the four Vedas (recitation from the Ṛgveda, music from the Sāmaveda, acting from the Yajurveda and rasa from the Atharvaveda). He declared:
सर्वशास्त्रसम्पन्नं सर्वशिल्पप्रवर्तकम्।
नाट्याख्यं पञ्चमं वेदं सेतिहासं करोम्यहम्॥
"I shall make the fifth Veda called Nāṭya, together with the Itihāsa, enriched with all sciences and promoting all arts."
This is the need of people of all times: relief from a world filled with conflicting emotions.
5. Meaning of the Word Rasa
• Vedic use: In the Ṛgveda, rasa means liquid, extract or flavour. In the Atharvaveda it means "taste" and "the sap of grain". In the Upaniṣads it also means "essence" and "self-luminous consciousness". In post-Vedic literature it means extract, essence or juice.
• Literary meaning: taste, flavour, relish, enjoyment.
• Aesthetic meaning: the special emotional delight a reader or spectator experiences from literature or drama.
Definition. Rasa is the aesthetic pleasure experienced by the audience after watching a drama or reading literature. It is not the ordinary emotion of daily life but an artistic experience produced through literature and performance.
Simple statement: Rasa is the emotional joy that a reader or spectator experiences while enjoying literature or drama.
Comparison: Just as food becomes delicious when spices are properly mixed, literature becomes beautiful when different emotions are properly combined.
A Gujarati note puts it well: ભાવનું ઉર્ધ્વીકરણ એટલે રસની પ્રાપ્તિ, meaning "the sublimation (elevation) of bhāva is the attainment of rasa".
Bharata also stresses the central place of rasa:
न हि रसादृते कश्चिदप्यर्थः प्रवर्तते।
"Without rasa, no meaning (purpose) of drama proceeds at all."
6. Origin and Purpose of Rasa Theory
Rasa Theory began in the context of Nāṭya (drama), because Bharata believed drama is the most effective medium for expressing human emotion. Dialogue, acting, facial expression, gesture, costume, music and stage setting together produce a deep response in the audience. Later critics applied the same principles to poetry and all literature.
According to Bharata, the aim of literature is not merely to tell a story. It is to awaken emotion, give aesthetic pleasure, refine human feeling and enrich the emotional life of the audience. The ultimate purpose of literature is therefore the experience of rasa.
Why it is important
• It explains the purpose of literature.
• It connects literature with universal human emotion.
• It remains relevant to novels, films, theatre, television and web series.
• Almost all later critics (Ānandavardhana, Abhinavagupta, Mammaṭa, Bhoja) discussed and developed it.
Bharata is called the Father of Indian Dramaturgy and the first great Indian literary critic.
7. The Rasasūtra
विभावानुभावव्यभिचारिसंयोगाद्रसनिष्पत्तिः॥
Word meaning: Saṃyoga = combination or union; Niṣpatti = production or emergence. Rasa is not produced automatically. It arises from the harmonious interaction of the elements.
As the Sanskrit summary of the sūtra says:
• विभावः (कारणम्): the cause
• अनुभावः (कार्यम्): the effect
• व्यभिचारी / सञ्चारी भावः (सहकारी): the helper
• एतेषां त्रयाणां संयोगात् मानवहृदये स्थितः स्थायी भावः (यथा रतिः, शोकः, क्रोधः) जाग्रतः भूत्वा रसरूपेण परिणमते। "By the combination of these three, the permanent emotion lying in the human heart (such as love, grief, anger) is awakened and transforms into rasa."
The later definition by Viśvanātha (Sāhitya-darpaṇa) expresses the same idea:
विभावेनानुभावेन व्यक्तः सञ्चारिणा तथा।
रसतामेति रत्यादिः स्थायी भावः सचेतसाम्॥
"The permanent emotion such as love, made manifest by vibhāva, anubhāva and sañcārī bhāva, becomes rasa for people of responsive heart."
8. The Process of the Creation of Rasa
There are four main elements, plus the Sāttvika Bhāvas and the idea of Saṃyoga.
8.1 Sthāyī Bhāva (स्थायी भाव), the permanent emotion
The stable emotion that lives in the human mind. It is the central element, and it is this emotion that finally develops into rasa. The other elements do not become rasa themselves; they awaken and strengthen the sthāyī bhāva. Each rasa is linked to one sthāyī bhāva.
रतिर्हासश्च शोकश्च क्रोधोत्साहौ भयं तथा।
जुगुप्सा विस्मयश्चेत्थमष्टौ प्रोक्ताः शमोऽपि च॥
"Love, laughter, grief, anger, energy, fear, disgust and wonder are the eight; and calm (śama) too."
8.2 Vibhāva (विभाव), the cause or stimulus
It explains why an emotion begins. It is of two kinds:
• Ālambana Vibhāva (आलम्बन): the person or character on whom the emotion depends, for example the hero and heroine. Examples: Duṣyanta and Śakuntalā; Romeo and Juliet.
• Uddīpana Vibhāva (उद्दीपन): the circumstances that intensify the emotion, for example a moonlit night, flowers, spring, music, a beautiful setting. Examples: the tamāla trees and garden where Duṣyanta meets Śakuntalā; the garden in Romeo and Juliet.
For śṛṅgāra rasa a yathocita (proper, suitable) atmosphere is needed. This is why a setting that does not fit the emotion weakens rasa.
8.3 Anubhāva (अनुभाव), the outward expression
Once an emotion arises, it becomes visible through physical expressions: smiling, crying, trembling, shouting, blushing, laughing. They help the audience understand the character's inner state.
8.4 Vyabhicārī or Sañcārī Bhāva (व्यभिचारी / सञ्चारी भाव), transitory states
Temporary, changing emotions that support the main emotion without replacing it. They rise like waves of the ocean and disappear. They are born out of the main emotion itself; for example sickness, despair and remorse can arise from sorrow. Bharata lists thirty-three:
8.5 Sāttvika Bhāva (सात्त्विक भाव), involuntary reactions
These are involuntary physical reactions caused by intense emotion. They occur naturally and cannot be consciously controlled. Bharata names eight:
2. Sveda (स्वेद): Perspiration (પરસેવો થવો)
3. Romāñca (रोमाञ्च): Horripilation, hair standing on end (રોમાંચ થવો / શરીરના વાળ ઊભા થઈ જવા)
4. Svarabhaṅga (स्वरभङ्ग): Choked or broken voice (અવાજ રૂંધાઈ જવો / અવાજમાં ભંગ પડવો)
5. Vepathu (वेपथु): Trembling (ધ્રૂજવું / કંપારી છૂટવી)
6. Vaivarṇya (वैवर्ण्य): Change of colour, pallor (ચહેરાનો રંગ બદલાઈ જવો / ચહેરો ફિક્કો પડી જવો)
7. Aśru (अश्रु): Tears (આંસુ આવવા / આંખોમાં આંસુ આવી જવા)
8. Pralaya (प्रलय): Fainting (બેભાન થઈ જવું / મૂર્છા આવવી)
Example: In Kālidāsa's Kumārasambhava, when Nārada brings the marriage proposal of Śiva, Pārvatī lowers her eyelids; this is a sāttvika bhāva.
8.6 Saṃyoga (संयोग), the union
The poet must blend all the elements so well that they cannot be told apart, "like sugar dissolved in milk".
8.7 Summary of the process
Vibhāva (cause) + Anubhāva (expression) + Vyabhicārī Bhāvas (temporary emotions) → awaken Sthāyī Bhāva (permanent emotion) → Rasa (aesthetic enjoyment).
rasa process · 3 inputs, 1 permanent emotion, 1 result
Read left to right: the three elements on the left together awaken the Sthāyī Bhāva, which is relished as rasa.
Everyday example (a happy person): the sthāyī bhāva is love; the vyabhicārī bhāvas may be envy, anxiety, joy, impatience, despair and fright. Many changing moods surround one stable feeling.
9. Relationship between Rasa and Bhāva
A classic question: "Do the bhāvas come out of the rasas, or the rasas out of the bhāvas?"
• The psychological states (bhāvas) make one feel the sentiments (rasas) through the various modes of dramatic representation.
• However, there can be no rasa before the bhāvas, and no bhāvas without the rasa resulting from them.
• Therefore rasa and bhāva cause each other to manifest.
Rasa is evoked in connection with the bhāva already present in the human mind. Bharata identified eight sthāyī bhāvas and thirty-three vyabhicārī bhāvas.
10. The Nine Rasas (Navarasa)
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Bharata recognised eight rasas. Abhinavagupta later established Śānta Rasa, making nine. Each rasa rests on a corresponding sthāyī bhāva.
शृङ्गारहास्यकरुणरौद्रवीरभयानकाः।
बीभत्साद्भुतशान्ताश्च नव नाट्ये रसाः स्मृताः॥
"Śṛṅgāra, hāsya, karuṇa, raudra, vīra, bhayānaka, bībhatsa, adbhuta and śānta: these are the nine rasas remembered in drama."
(Bharata's original verse lists only the first eight: "…बीभत्साद्भुतसंज्ञौ चेत्यष्टौ नाट्ये रसाः स्मृताः॥")
10.1 Master table
Navarasa map · 9 rasas with emotion and deity
Each box pairs a rasa with its permanent emotion and presiding deity.
Note: Different sources and notes give slightly different deities and colours for some rasas (for example Śiva in place of Pramathas, or Vīra as fair/golden in the Nāṭyaśāstra). The table above follows the lecture slides.
10.2 Śṛṅgāra Rasa (Erotic / Love)
Based on Rati. It is called Rasarāja, the king of rasas, and relates to whatever is bright, pure and beautiful. It has two bases:
• Sambhoga (union)
• Vipralambha (separation)
Vibhāvas (union): pleasant seasons, garlands, unguents, ornaments, dear persons, fine mansions, going to a garden, seeing and hearing the beloved, play and dalliance, absence of opposition. Anubhāvas: a smiling face, sweet words, clever movement of the eyes, eyebrows and glances, soft movements of limbs. Vyabhicārīs: all except fear, laziness, cruelty and disgust. In separation: consequents such as indifference, languor, fear, jealousy, fatigue, anxiety, yearning, drowsiness, dreaming, illness, madness, fainting and death.
The verse commonly cited for its etymology: "येन शृङ्गं रियते", the rasa that makes one reach the peak of delight.
10.3 Hāsya Rasa (Comic)
Based on Hāsa (laughter).
Vibhāvas: odd dress or ornaments, impudence, greed, quarrel, a defective limb, irrelevant words, pointing out faults, mimicry, foolishness. Anubhāvas: throbbing lips, nose and cheeks, wide or narrowed eyes, perspiration, change of facial colour, holding the sides. Vyabhicārīs: laziness, dissimulation, drowsiness, sleep, dreaming, insomnia, envy.
Two kinds: ātmastha (self-centred, one laughs oneself) and parastha (centred in others, one makes others laugh).
Six varieties, in pairs for three types of persons:
10.4 Karuṇa Rasa (Pathetic)
Based on Śoka (sorrow).
Vibhāvas: affliction under a curse, separation from dear ones, loss of wealth, death, captivity, flight from one's place, accidents and misfortune. Anubhāvas: shedding tears, lamentation, dryness of mouth, change of colour, drooping limbs, deep breathing, loss of memory, falling on the ground, loss of voice. Vyabhicārīs: indifference, languor, anxiety, madness, epilepsy, fear, fainting, dejection, illness, laziness, death, paralysis, trembling.
The notes cite the pattern "करुणप्रेक्ष्येषु…" as a descriptive line for the rasa. Classic example: Vālmīki's grief at the krauñca bird, the source of the Rāmāyaṇa.
10.5 Raudra Rasa (Furious)
Based on Krodha (anger). Traditionally linked with rākṣasas, dānavas and arrogant men, and caused by fights.
Vibhāvas: anger, abuse, insult, false accusation, threats, revenge, jealousy, opposing persons. Actions: beating, breaking, crushing, cutting, piercing, taking up arms, drawing blood. Anubhāvas: red eyes, knitted brows, defiance, biting the lips, throbbing cheeks, swollen nose, pressing one hand with the other. Vyabhicārīs: presence of mind, determination, energy, fury, perspiration, trembling, horripilation, choked voice.
10.6 Vīra Rasa (Heroic)
Based on Utsāha (energy). It belongs to superior persons.
Vibhāvas: presence of mind, perseverance, diplomacy, discipline, military strength, reputation of might, influence, absence of sadness. Anubhāvas: firmness, patience, heroism, charity, steadiness, munificence, boldness. Vyabhicārīs: contentment, judgement, pride, agitation, vigour, ferocity, indignation, remembrance, horripilation.
It inspires courage, patriotism and noble action. "रक्तसनेत्रता चास्य…" (और इसकी आँखें खून के समान लाल थीं ) as a descriptive line (red eyes in battle).
10.7 Bhayānaka Rasa (Terrible)
Based on Bhaya (fear).
Vibhāvas: hideous noises, sight of ghosts, panic, untimely cries of jackals and owls, staying in an empty house or forest, sight or news of death or captivity of dear ones, offending the king, seeing an elephant or snake. Anubhāvas: trembling hands and feet, palpitation, dry mouth, perspiration, running away, crying, horripilation, change of colour, loss of voice. Vyabhicārīs: paralysis, perspiration, choked voice, stupefaction, dejection, agitation, restlessness, epilepsy, death.
10.8 Bībhatsa Rasa (Odious)
Based on Jugupsā (disgust).
Vibhāvas: hearing, seeing or discussing unpleasant, offensive, impure and harmful things. Anubhāvas: stopping or contracting the limbs, narrowing the mouth, vomiting, spitting, shaking the limbs, heart-ache. Vyabhicārīs: epilepsy, delusion, agitation, fainting, sickness, death.
10.9 Adbhuta Rasa (Marvellous)
Based on Vismaya (wonder, astonishment).
Vibhāvas: sight of heavenly beings or events, attaining desired objects, entering a grand palace, temple or assembly hall, illusion and magic, extraordinary feats, great excellence. Anubhāvas: wide-open eyes, fixed gaze without winking, horripilation, tears of joy, perspiration, words of praise, making gifts, shouting "ha, ha", waving the end of a garment, movement of fingers, moving the head to and fro. Vyabhicārīs: weeping, paralysis, perspiration, choked voice, agitation, haste, inactivity.
10.10 Śānta Rasa (Peaceful)
Based on Śama (inner calm) or Nirveda (detachment from worldly life). It represents peace, tranquillity and spiritual satisfaction, and is associated with meditation, renunciation and spiritual realisation. Abhinavagupta gave it full philosophical standing as the ninth rasa. The notes describe it with the phrase "निस्पृहत्वं समाः" (freedom from desire, equanimity).
11. Ordinary Emotion versus Rasa
Even painful emotions such as sorrow or fear become enjoyable in literature and drama, because they are presented as art and not as real-life experience. Rasa transforms personal emotion into aesthetic delight. It is also linked to the Western idea of "art for art's sake", because it connects the artist (kalākāra) with the responsive audience (bhāvaka).
12. Later Commentators on Rasa-Niṣpatti
Bharata's sūtra says rasa is "produced" (niṣpatti), but it does not say clearly where rasa lies or how it arises. Four early commentators gave different answers.
12.1 Sādhāraṇīkaraṇa (Generalisation)
Bhaṭṭa Nāyaka explains how a sahṛdaya spectator experiences rasa. Rāma and Sītā are played by ordinary human actors, yet through dress, language and action the actors express feelings, and these lead to rasa in the spectator. Generalisation is possible only when the characters act as the author has conceived them.
12.2 Abhinavagupta's view
Characters lose their individual identity when they play a role. Spectators take the actor as the real Rāma and feel the full intensity of emotion; for example, they feel Rāma's agony in Sītā's separation. Yet they are freed from the idea "I am in agony", because the experience is universalised. Rasa becomes impersonal and creates the atmosphere for catharsis, and the experience is compared to brahmānanda (spiritual bliss).
12.3 Dhanañjaya and the question of the spectator
Dhanañjaya (author of the Daśarūpaka) holds that it is the reader or spectator who enjoys the aesthetic experience. He raised these questions:
1. Who is the object of rasa for the reader?
2. How can readers identify themselves with the historical Rāma and Sītā?
Conclusion of all the ācāryas: poetic pleasure can be enjoyed only when a particular event becomes generalised.
13. Examples from Literature and Culture
• Śṛṅgāra: Duṣyanta and Śakuntalā (Abhijñāna-śākuntalam); Romeo and Juliet.
• Karuṇa: Vālmīki's grief at the krauñca bird; Rāma's agony at Sītā's separation.
• Sāttvika bhāva: Pārvatī's drooping eyelids in Kumārasambhava; the Gujarati line by Manoj Khanderiya, "બીજમાંથી પૂનમ દઈ દે…", is cited as another example.
• Anubhāva and atmosphere: Ra. Vi. Pāṭhak's poem Khemī is noted as an exception to the usual atmosphere (yathocita) needed for śṛṅgāra; the Gujarati film Karsandas Pay and Use is cited in the same discussion.
• Pattern poetry: Māgha's Śiśupālavadha shows verbal artistry in Sanskrit, where words can be rearranged without changing meaning.
14. Quick Revision Chart
15. Conclusion
Rasa Theory is the most important and influential theory in Indian Poetics. The Navarasa, completed by the addition of Śānta Rasa, give a complete framework for understanding human emotion in literature, drama and other arts. Rasa lifts personal feeling into universal, shared delight. Even today the theory remains useful for analysing poetry, novels, theatre, cinema and modern visual media, and it stands as one of the greatest contributions of Indian Poetics to world literary criticism.
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