Indian Poetics

This blog is written as a task assigned by the head of the Department of English (MKBU), Prof. and Dr. Dilip Barad Sir. Here is the link to the professor's blog for background reading: Click here.

Lecture by Vinod Joshi Sir (15th January 2025) – Understanding Indian Poetics

1.Thought vs. Language

• "Language is not our choice; thoughts are the true ornament. A person is not born with a language."

• This statement challenges the idea that language is inherent. Instead, it is an acquired tool, whereas thought is fundamental.

• Literature is not merely an assembly of words but an expression of deeper Bhav Jagat (world of emotions).

2.Understanding Language Beyond Words

• Quoting Robert Brill: "We know the language but we don't know about language."

• Knowing how to speak a language does not equate to understanding its depth or aesthetic value.

• Language is structured, but its origin lies in the human ability to produce sound.

3.Phonetic Foundations: Swar and Vyanjan

• Swar (સ્વર) – Independent sounds (vowels).

• Vyanjan (વ્યંજન) – Dependent sounds (consonants that require vowels).

• Categorization of consonants based on pronunciation:
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• Kanthya (કંઠ્ય) – Sounds from the throat.  

• Talavya (તાલવ્ય) – Sounds produced by the tongue touching the hard palate.

• Murdhanya (મૂર્ધન્ય) – Sounds formed when the tongue curls backward.

4.Natural Gifts: Dhwani (Sound) and Halanchalan (Movement)

• Dhwani (ધ્વનિ) and Halanchalan (હલનચલન) are innate human faculties.

• Even before learning language, humans express themselves through sound and movement.

• Just as music evolves from raw vocal sounds into structured forms (Sa, Re, Ga, Ma), language too develops from primal expressions.

5.Vastu vs. Vastuta: The Dual Nature of Reality

• Vastu (વસ્તુ) – The material form of an object (e.g., a wooden table).

• Vastuta (વસ્તુતા) – The essence or deeper nature of an object, which remains unchanged even if its form changes.

• In literature, a story’s Vastu is its surface narrative, while its Vastuta is its deeper meaning.

6.Perception Through Panch Indriya (Five Senses)

The human experience is shaped by:

• Drashti (દૃષ્ટિ) – Sight

• Shruti (શ્રુતિ) – Hearing

• Ghran (ઘ્રાણ) – Smell

• Ras (રસ) – Taste

• Sparsh (સ્પર્શ) – Touch

• Vastu Jagat (વસ્તુ જગત) – The material world perceived through these senses.

• Bhav Jagat (ભાવ જગત) – The emotional world, which gives literature its true essence.

• True Talmel (તાલમેલ) or Sayujya (સયુજ્ય) in literature occurs when it moves beyond description and evokes emotions.

7.Examples & Literary References

• Balmukund Dave’s Poem: "જૂનું ઘર ખાલી કરતા"

• The poem metaphorically captures how material belongings can be moved, but emotions and memories remain in the old home.

• A newborn child does not know language but expresses emotions through Dhwani, proving that expression precedes structured speech.

 

8.Conclusion 

• Thought is primary; language is secondary.

• Phonetics provides structure, but emotion gives literature life.

• Vastu vs. Vastuta teaches us to see beyond the surface.

• Literature is a bridge between the Vastu Jagat (physical world) and Bhav Jagat (emotional world), ultimately shaping human experience.

16th January 2025

Poetics and Aesthetics: An Overview

This lecture explored Indian poetics in contrast with Western literary criticism, focusing on aesthetic theories. It introduced Benedetto Croce’s aesthetic theory, which defines art as an expression of intuition, and Bharata Muni’s Nātyaśāstra, which presents the Rasa Theory—an emotional response model for literature and drama.

Understanding Aesthetic Expression

Benedetto Croce: The Science of Expression

• Croce emphasized that art is an intuitive expression of human emotions rather than an intellectual construct.

• He introduced the concept of Nesargik Shakti (Natural Human Capacity for Emotion), explaining that artistic expression arises naturally from human experience.

• He rejected the idea of objective beauty, instead arguing that art is purely subjective and resides in the mind of the perceiver.

Bharata Muni’s Nātyaśāstra: The Indian Aesthetic Tradition

• Nātyaśāstra (નાટ્યશાસ્ત્ર) is an ancient Sanskrit text on drama, poetry, and performance arts.

• Rasa Theory (રસ સિદ્ધાંત) is central to this work, explaining how art stimulates emotions in the audience.

• Unlike Western mimesis (imitation of reality), Indian poetics emphasizes emotional transformation through artistic experience.

Theoretical Frameworks of Indian Poetics

The Six (or Seven) Schools of Indian Poetics

Indian literary theory evolved through six major schools, with a seventh introduced later:

School	Thinker	Key Idea	Focus
Rasa (રસ)	Bharata Muni	Art creates emotions	Emotional experience
Dhvani (ધ્વનિ)	Anandavardhana	Meaning lies in suggestion	Indirect meaning
Vakrokti (વક્રોક્તિ)	Kuntaka	Beauty arises from deviation in expression	Figurative language
Alankara (અલંકાર)	Bhamaha	Rhetorical ornaments enhance poetry	Simile, metaphor
Riti (રીતિ)	Vamana	Style determines poetic beauty	Stylistic elegance
Auchitya (ઓચિત્ય)	Kṣemendra	Literature must maintain appropriateness	Thematic relevance
Ramaniyata (રમણીયતા)	Jagannātha	Literature should be inherently beautiful	Charm and aesthetic appeal

• Dhvani theory aligns with modern symbolism in Western poetry.

• Vakrokti resembles defamiliarization (ostranenie) in Russian Formalism.

• Alankara focuses on literary devices, like Aristotle’s Poetics.

The Rasa Theory: Emotional Transformation in Art

What is Rasa?

Rasa is the emotional essence that literature and drama evoke. According to Bharata Muni, successful art creates a deep emotional response, transforming the viewer’s Sthāyi Bhāva (permanent emotion) into Rasa (artistic sentiment).

The Nine Rasas and Their Sthāyi Bhāvas

Rasa (રસ)	Emotion	Sthāyi Bhāva (Permanent Emotion)	Presiding Deity	Colour (રંગ)
Śṛṅgāraḥ (શૃંગાર)	Love, Romance	Rati (Delight)	Vishnu	Light Green
Hāsyam (હાસ્ય)	Laughter, Joy	Hasa (Laughter)	Shiva	White
Raudram (રૌદ્ર)	Fury, Anger	Krodha (Anger)	Rudra	Red
Kāruṇyam (કારુણ્ય)	Compassion, Sorrow	Śoka (Grief)	Yama	Grey
Bībhatsam (બીભત્સ)	Disgust, Aversion	Jugupsa (Disgust)	Shiva	Blue
Bhayānakam (ભયાનક)	Fear, Horror	Bhaya (Fear)	Yama	Black
Vīram (વીર)	Heroism, Bravery	Utsāha (Courage)	Indra	Saffron
Adbhutam (અદ્ભૂત)	Wonder, Curiosity	Vismaya (Amazement)	Brahma	Yellow
Śāntam (શાંત)	Peace, Tranquility	Sama (Equanimity)	Vishnu	Perpetual White

Each Rasa is aestheticized emotion, transforming personal feelings into universal experiences.

• Example: A poet describing love doesn’t simply narrate emotions but creates Śṛṅgāra Rasa, making the audience experience love artistically.

Forms of Literature and Dramatic Classifications

Different Literary Forms

Genre	Characteristics	Example
Poetry (કાવ્ય)	Highly structured, rhythmic language	Kalidasa’s Meghadūta
Drama (નાટક)	Performance-based storytelling	Abhijnāna Śākuntalam
Essay (નિબંધ)	Analytical or critical writing	Bhartṛhari’s Vākyapadīya
Fiction (કથાસાહિત્ય)	Narrative-driven, often prose	Dashakumaracharita

Types of Drama

• Dr̥śya Nāṭaka (દૃશ્ય નાટક) – Visual Drama: Performed with dialogues and action.

• Śrāvya Nāṭaka (શ્રાવ્ય નાટક) – Auditory Drama: Recited or narrated, such as oral storytelling traditions.

• Pāṭhya Nāṭaka (પાઠ્ય નાટક) – Reading Drama: Meant for literary appreciation, like Greek tragedies in written form.

Comparing Western and Indian Literary Criticism

Aspect	Western (Aristotle)	Indian (Bharata Muni)
Purpose of Art	Mimesis (Imitation of Reality)	Emotional Transformation (Rasa)
Focus	Plot & Structure	Aesthetic Experience
Key Work	Poetics	Nātyaśāstra
Core Concept	Tragic Catharsis	Rasa & Bhāva

Key Differences

• Western poetics emphasize structure, logic, and imitation, whereas Indian poetics focus on emotional transformation.

• Aristotle believed tragedy purges emotions (catharsis), while Bharata argued that drama sustains emotions (Rasa).

Conclusion:

•  Nesargik Shakti (નેસર્ગિક શક્તિ): Human beings naturally express emotions in art.

•  Rasa Theory (રસ સિદ્ધાંત): Literature’s primary goal is to evoke emotional responses.

•  Sthāyi Bhāva (સ્થાયી ભાવ): Each Rasa originates from a permanent human emotion.

•  Six/Seven Schools of Poetics: Different schools offer distinct approaches to analyzing poetry.

•  Forms of Literature: Poetry, Drama, Fiction, and Essays evolve differently based on aesthetic goals.

• Western vs. Indian Criticism: Mimesis vs. Emotional Transformation defines the key difference between Aristotle’s and Bharata Muni’s approaches.

17th January 2025

Mammata’s Kavyaprakash is one of the most important texts in Indian poetics (Kavya Shastra). It expands on the Rasa Theory, which originated from Bharata Muni’s Nātyaśāstra. According to Rasa Theory, poetry and drama evoke emotions through a structured combination of elements.

A key shloka that defines the formation of Rasa is:

“विभावानुभाव-व्यभिचारी-संयोगाद् रसनिष्पत्तिः।”

(Vibhava-anubhava-vyabhichari-samyogat rasa-nishpattih.)

This means that Rasa (aesthetic emotion) emerges from the combination of:

• Vibhava (Determinants) – Cause of emotion

• Anubhava (Expressions) – Visible emotional responses

• Vyabhichari Bhava (Transient Emotions) – Supporting emotions that enhance the main feeling

Elements of Rasa Formation

1. Vibhava (Determinants) – The Cause of Emotion

Vibhava is the primary reason why an emotion arises. It has two types:

• Aalambana Vibhava (आलम्बन विभाव) – The main subject that evokes emotion.

• Example: In a romantic poem, the lover and beloved are Aalambana Vibhavas.

• Uddipana Vibhava (उद्दीपन विभाव) – External factors that enhance the emotion.

• Example: Moonlight, spring season, or a melodious song in a love scene.

Shloka from Nātyaśāstra:

"तस्मात्तु कारणं विभ्वस्तस्माच्चानुभवा स्मृताः।"

(Tasmāttu kāraṇaṃ vibhvastasmāccānubhavā smṛtāḥ.)

This means that Vibhava is the cause of emotion, and Anubhava (expressions) follow as a response.

2. Anubhava (Expressions) – The Manifestation of Emotion

Anubhavas are the external expressions of internal emotions. They make the aesthetic experience visible.

Example: A character blushing or shedding tears in poetry expresses deep emotion.

Shloka from Nātyaśāstra:

"सुखदुःखादयः भावाः श्रवणादर्शनेन च।"

(Sukhaduḥkhādayaḥ bhāvāḥ śravaṇādarśanena ca.)

This means emotions like joy and sorrow become visible through sound (words) and sight (gestures).

3. Vyabhichari Bhava (Transient Emotions) – Supporting Feelings

Vyabhichari Bhavas are temporary emotions that momentarily strengthen the main emotion (Sthayi Bhava).

Shloka from Kavyaprakash:

"नित्यं स्थितोऽपि या भावः स स्थायी इति कीर्तितः।"

(Nityaṃ sthito’pi yā bhāvaḥ sa sthāyī iti kīrtitaḥ.)

This means that Sthayi Bhava (permanent emotion) remains constant, while Vyabhichari Bhavas (transient emotions) fluctuate.

Some important Vyabhichari Bhavas:

1. Nirveda (निर्वेद) – Disinterest
2. Shanka (शंका) – Doubt
3. Harsha (हर्ष) – Joy
4. Dainya (दैन्य) – Misery
5. Krodha (क्रोध) – Anger
6. Smriti (स्मृति) – Memory

Example: In a tragic scene, sadness (Shoka) may be the main emotion, but transient emotions like fear, nostalgia, or helplessness add depth to the experience.

The Role of Sanchari Bhava and Structural Combinations

Sanchari Bhava (Flowing Emotions)

Sanchari Bhavas are unstable, momentary emotions that enhance the main Rasa.

Analogy:

Imagine a deep lake. The Sthayi Bhava (dominant emotion) is the still water, while Sanchari Bhavas are the ripples and waves that momentarily alter its surface.

Shloka from Nātyaśāstra

"अनुभावाश्च संचारिणो ये च स्थायिनो मताः।"

(Anubhāvāśca sañcāriṇo ye ca sthāyino matāḥ.)

This means that expressions (Anubhavas) and flowing emotions (Sanchari Bhavas) together complete the Rasa experience.

Structural Principles: Sanyojan and Mishran

Sanyojan (संयोजन) – Artistic Arrangement

This refers to the structured organization of emotions and poetic elements.

• Example: The way a poet arranges metaphors, rhymes, and imagery to create impact.

Mishran (मिश्रण) – Blending of Elements

This refers to the mixture of different emotions or literary styles to create deeper meaning.

• Example: Romeo and Juliet blends romance and tragedy for heightened emotional impact.

Shloka from Kavyaprakash:

"रसस्यापि प्रभावेन लोकसङ्ग्रहकारिणः।"

(Rasasyāpi prabhāvena lokasaṅgrahakāriṇaḥ.)

This means that the power of Rasa unifies emotions and influences the audience.

Key Takeaways

• Rasa Formation: Rasa arises through the interaction of Vibhava, Anubhava, and Vyabhichari Bhava.

• Emotional Depth: Sanchari Bhavas add layers to the main emotion.

• Balance Between Structure and Spontaneity: Sanyojan (organization) and Mishran (blending) ensure that poetry remains engaging.

• Dynamic Process: Rasa is not a fixed emotion but a fluid experience shaped by the interplay of various Bhavas.

18th January 2025

Bharata Muni’s Rasa Theory and Its Critics

Bharata Muni’s Nāṭyaśāstra is the seminal text of Indian dramaturgy, establishing the foundational principles of Rasa, the aesthetic experience that transforms theatrical performances into emotionally immersive art. The essence of Rasa is encapsulated in the following shloka:

"विभावानुभाव-व्यभिचारी-संयोगाद् रसनिष्पत्तिः॥"

This means that Rasa arises from the combination of Vibhāva (determinants), Anubhāva (expressions), and Vyabhicāri Bhāva (transitory emotions). Bharata Muni classified nine Rasas, each evoking a distinct emotional response:

"शृङ्गार करुण वीर रौद्र हास्य भयानका।

बिभत्साद्भुत् शान्तश्च नव नाट्ये रसास्मृता:॥"

These are: Śṛṅgāra (Love), Karuṇa (Compassion), Vīra (Heroism), Raudra (Fury), Hāsya (Humor), Bhayānaka (Terror), Bībhatsa (Disgust), Adbhuta (Wonder), and Śānta (Tranquility).

The concept of Rasa has been critically examined and debated by later scholars, including Bhatta Lollata, Shri Shankuka, Bhatta Nayaka, and Abhinavagupta. Each of them provided unique interpretations regarding the origin, nature, and perception of Rasa.

Rasa Theory: Aesthetic Framework

The Dynamics of Navarasa

Rasa is the essence that elevates drama beyond storytelling, ensuring emotional engagement. Each Rasa is linked to a dominant Sthāyī Bhāva (permanent emotion):

• Śṛṅgāra (Love) → Rati (Affection)

• Hāsya (Humor) → Hāsa (Laughter)

• Raudra (Fury) → Krodha (Anger)

• Karuṇa (Compassion) → Śoka (Grief)

• Vīra (Heroism) → Utsāha (Enthusiasm)

• Bhayānaka (Terror) → Bhaya (Fear)

• Bībhatsa (Disgust) → Jugupsā (Aversion)

• Adbhuta (Wonder) → Vismaya (Astonishment)

• Śānta (Tranquility) → Sama (Equanimity)

The interplay between Vibhāva, Anubhāva, and Vyabhicāri Bhāva creates an immersive aesthetic experience, making Rasa an essential element in both classical and contemporary art forms.

Critical Perspectives on Rasa Theory

Bhatta Lollata – Utpatti-vāda (Theory of Generation)

Bhatta Lollata argued that Rasa is produced (Utpann) during a performance. He believed that it arises directly from the actor’s portrayal of emotions and is not an inherent quality of the text or audience perception.

Example with Shloka:

In the Mahābhārata, Karṇa’s lament over his fate evokes Karuṇa Rasa in the audience:

"अनागत विधाता च यथार्थो नोपलभ्यते।

कालस्यातिक्रमो नास्ति सर्वेषां नः परन्तप॥"

This means, “Destiny cannot be foreseen, and time spares no one.” Here, the actor’s portrayal of Karṇa’s sorrow generates Rasa in the audience.

Shri Shankuka – Anumiti-vāda (Theory of Inference)

Shankuka opposed Bhatta Lollata’s view, arguing that Rasa is not produced but inferred (Anumiti) by the audience. The performance merely serves as an indicator for the spectator to interpret emotions.

Example with Shloka:

In Abhijñāna Śākuntalam, when Dushyanta forgets Shakuntala due to Durvāsā’s curse, the audience experiences Śṛṅgāra Rasa through inference:

"स्मृतिरप्यन्या भारोऽसौ भवेदयमात्मनि स्वयम्।"

This suggests that even memory can become a burden, reinforcing the idea that the audience, through their own understanding, experiences the emotional depth of the scene rather than the performance creating it directly.

Bhatta Nayaka – Bhoga-vāda (Theory of Aesthetic Enjoyment)

Bhatta Nayaka introduced the idea that Rasa is neither produced nor inferred but enjoyed as Bhoga (Aesthetic Experience). He argued that the audience engages with emotions without personal involvement, experiencing a transcendental pleasure.

Example with Shloka:

In Kalidasa’s Meghadūta, the Yakṣa’s longing for his beloved generates Karuṇa Rasa, allowing the audience to experience the sorrow without personal suffering:

"तस्याः सिक्तं वदनमदिरास्यन्दिबिन्दूनि पूर्वम्।"

Here, the poetic beauty enhances the emotional experience, making it an artistic pleasure rather than a personal grief.

Abhinavagupta – Abhivyakti-vāda (Theory of Expression)

Abhinavagupta refined Rasa Theory, stating that Rasa is not created (Utpanna) or inferred (Anumiti) but is expressed (Abhivyakta). He introduced the concept of Sahṛidaya (a refined audience), who alone can fully experience Rasa.

Example with Shloka:

In Rāmāyaṇa, when Sita is abandoned by Rama, the audience experiences Karuṇa Rasa, but only those with refined sensitivity (Sahṛidaya) fully grasp the depth of the sorrow:

"नाहं जानामि कैकेयीं राज्यं वा त्वं च मे पतिः।"

Here, Sita expresses her devotion, but the true impact of her suffering is realized only by those with the ability to deeply engage with the emotion.

Conclusion

The evolution of Rasa Theory highlights the different interpretations of aesthetic experience. While Bharata Muni provided the foundational structure, later scholars explored the process of experiencing Rasa—whether as a product of performance (Utpatti-vāda), a process of inference (Anumiti-vāda), an act of aesthetic enjoyment (Bhoga-vāda), or an expression realized through a sensitive audience (Abhivyakti-vāda).

This discourse underscores the dynamic nature of artistic engagement, where performance, perception, and aesthetic sensitivity collectively shape our interaction with literature, drama, and art.

Key Takeaways

• Navarasa as Artistic Foundation: Rasa is the emotional essence of art, defined in the Nāṭyaśāstra.

• Critics’ Diverging Views: Theorists debated whether Rasa is produced, inferred, experienced, or expressed.

• Role of Audience Perception: Shankuka’s Pratiti theory explains how emotions arise through different modes of perception.

• Aesthetic Sensitivity: Abhinavagupta’s emphasis on the Sahṛidaya suggests that Rasa is best understood by a refined audience.

20th January 2025

21st January 2025

Anandavardhana’s Dhvani Theory: The Power of Suggestion in Literature

Anandavardhana, a 9th-century Sanskrit literary theorist, revolutionized Indian aesthetics through his Dhvani Siddhānta (ધ્વનિ સિદ્ધાંત) in his seminal work Dhvanyāloka (ધ્વન્યાલોક). Dhvani, meaning "suggestion" or "implied meaning," is the core of poetic beauty, wherein the significance of a literary text extends beyond its direct statement.

Anandavardhana emphasized that true artistic depth is not in explicit meaning (Abhidha) or figurative meaning (Lakṣaṇā) but in suggested meaning (Vyanjanā). He illustrated this through the concept of Pratima (પ્રતિમા), where an image or metaphor conveys deeper truths indirectly.

As the Mahābhārata states:

"शब्दब्रह्मणि निष्णातः परं ब्रह्माधिगच्छति॥"

(One who comprehends the essence of sound (Dhvani) attains the supreme truth.)

This suggests that poetic expression transcends its verbal content, creating multiple layers of meaning for the reader.

The Essence of Dhvani

Vyanjana: The Power of Suggestion

Anandavardhana argued that Dhvani operates through Vyanjanā, where a word or phrase hints at deeper meanings rather than stating them explicitly. Literature’s true strength lies in what is implied, allowing readers to uncover layers of significance.

Example:

In A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen, Nora’s departure is not merely a personal decision but symbolizes women’s emancipation. This interpretation goes beyond the literal narrative, embodying the power of suggestion in drama.

As Kalidasa writes in Meghadūta:

"कान्तासंमिश्रितं किमपि तदात्मानं मन्येऽभ्रम्।"

(A cloud carrying a message is not just vapor but a symbol of longing and separation.)

Here, the cloud (Megha) is not merely a rain-bearing entity but a metaphor for desire and sorrow, reinforcing Anandavardhana’s emphasis on suggestion over explicit description.

Three Dimensions of Dhvani

Anandavardhana classified Dhvani into three interrelated aspects that enrich poetic meaning:

1. Smṛti (સ્મૃતિ) – Memory

Dhvani evokes personal and cultural memories, making literature resonate with historical and emotional depth.

Example:

In Eugène Ionesco’s The Chairs, the repetitive game metaphorically represents power struggles and historical cycles. This echoes how literature reminds audiences of past realities.

Sanskrit Example:

In Rāmāyaṇa, Sita’s lament at being abandoned by Rama evokes Karuṇa Rasa (pathos) through Smṛti:

"नाहं जानामि कैकेयीं राज्यं वा त्वं च मे पतिः।"

(I do not care for the kingdom or Kaikeyi; you alone are my refuge.)

This conveys both personal grief and a universal experience of loss, demonstrating how literary memory transcends time.

2. Swapna (સ્વપ્ન) – Dream

Dhvani often immerses the reader in a dream-like, surreal experience, blending reality with illusion.

Example:

Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot exemplifies Swapna Dhvani, where the entire play’s structure suggests existential uncertainty and an endless wait. The play does not explicitly state a message but suggests a deeper commentary on human existence.

Sanskrit Example:

Kalidasa in Abhijñāna Śākuntalam creates a dream-like atmosphere through poetic Dhvani:

"शशिनः कलङ्कलेखेव न सदा राजनि स्थिता।"

(Like the moon’s shadow, fate is ever-changing.)

This indirect suggestion mirrors the dream-like illusion of life and destiny.

3. Kalpanā (કલ્પના) – Imagination

Dhvani stimulates creative interpretation, encouraging audiences to visualize deeper meanings beyond the text.

Example:

In Bhartṛhari’s Nitishataka, moral lessons are suggested rather than directly preached. The reader must use imagination to derive ethical insights.

Sanskrit Example:

Bhartṛhari states:

"न गच्छति कश्चिदगम्यम्।"

(No path is impassable for the determined.)

Here, Kalpanā Dhvani allows multiple interpretations—whether about spiritual progress, intellectual pursuit, or personal resilience.

The Significance of Dhvani in Literature

• Beyond Explicit Meaning: Dhvani ensures that literature is not just about what is said but what is suggested.

• Vyanjana’s Centrality: Meaning is created through association, metaphor, and subtext, rather than mere description.

• Multidimensional Interpretation: The three layers of Smṛti (memory), Swapna (dream), and Kalpanā (imagination) enrich literary engagement.

• Timeless & Universal: Dhvani applies to both classical and modern literature, from Sanskrit poetry to Western drama.

As Anandavardhana himself proclaimed:

"रसस्याऽऽगमने हेतुः शब्दार्थौ सह कार्यिणौ।"

(Both words and meanings together create the aesthetic experience of Rasa.)

Thus, Dhvani remains the soul of poetry, bridging linguistic expression and emotional resonance.

22nd January 2025

Anandavardhana’s Dhvani: The Soul of Poetry

Anandavardhana’s Dhvanyāloka revolutionized Indian literary thought by emphasizing that poetry’s true essence lies in its implicit meaning rather than its explicit statements. His famous declaration:

“ध्वनिः काव्यस्य आत्मा” (Dhvaniḥ kāvyasya ātmā) 

→ “Dhvani is the soul of poetry” captures this core idea. Unlike ordinary language, which communicates directly, poetry achieves its aesthetic power through Vyanjana (વ્યંજના), or suggestion. This concept reshaped classical Indian poetics and continues to influence global literary criticism.

 Three Functions of Language

Anandavardhana identified three functions of language that contribute to poetic interpretation:

Abhidha (અભિધા) – Denotation (Primary Meaning)

• The direct, literal meaning of a word.

• Example: “The sky is blue.” (આકાશ નિલું છે.) – A straightforward factual statement.

Lakshana (લક્ષણા) – Indication (Secondary or Contextual Meaning)

• When the primary meaning does not fit, an implied meaning emerges.

• Example: “The classroom is a jungle.” – This suggests disorder rather than an actual jungle.

Vyanjana (વ્યંજના) – Suggestion (Implied Meaning or Dhvani)

• A meaning beyond the literal, revealed through subtle suggestion.

• Example: In Ibsen’s A Doll’s House, Nora’s departure symbolizes women’s liberation (સ્ત્રી મુક્તિ), rather than just a personal choice.

Dhvani and the Explosion of Poetic Meaning

Mammata’s Kavya-Sphota in Kavyaprakash

Mammata, in Kavyaprakash, expanded on Anandavardhana’s insights through his concept of Kavya-Sphota (કાવ્ય-સ્ફોટ), which explains how meaning in poetry “bursts forth” beyond the literal. He argued that Bhasha (ભાષા) alone cannot fully convey the depth of poetic meaning. Instead, Dhvani allows poetry to create profound resonance in the minds of readers.

For instance, in A Doll’s House, Nora’s act of leaving home is not merely a literal departure (પ્રસ્થાન), but through Vyanjana, it suggests the broader theme of women’s liberation (સ્ત્રી મુક્તિ).

Three Types of Dhvani

Anandavardhana classified Dhvani based on how suggestion operates within poetry. These three types provide a framework for understanding literature across cultures.

Vastu Dhvani (વસ્તુ ધ્વનિ – Thematic Suggestion)

This form occurs when an underlying theme is revealed indirectly rather than explicitly stated.

उपदेशेषु वाक्यार्थः प्रत्यक्षो न हि कस्यचित्।

(In teachings, the meaning of words is not always direct.)

Example: Jonathan Livingston Seagull is not just a tale of a bird; through Dhvani, it symbolizes human aspiration and self-realization (આત્મસાધના).

Alankara Dhvani (અલંકાર ધ્વનિ – Figurative Suggestion)

• When poetic devices like metaphors, similes, and allegories enhance deeper meaning.

• Example: Robert Frost’s The Road Not Taken uses the “two roads” as a metaphor (रूपकः) for life’s choices. The reader perceives its philosophical depth through Vyanjana, rather than just a literal interpretation.

Rasa Dhvani (રસ ધ્વનિ – Emotional Suggestion)

• The most refined form of Dhvani, where emotions (Rasa, રસ) are not stated but evoked.

• Example: In Shakespeare’s Othello, Desdemona’s death is not merely an act of violence (હિંસા), but through Dhvani, it suggests deep emotions of betrayal (विश्वासघातः, વિશ્વાસઘાત) and tragic love.

The Transformative Power of Suggestion

Anandavardhana believed that Saundarya (સૌંદર્ય – beauty) in poetry arises from its ability to evoke meanings beyond words. यदि ध्वनिर्नास्ति, काव्यम् अपूर्णम्! (If there is no Dhvani, poetry remains incomplete!).

This principle applies not only to classical Sanskrit poetry but also to global literature. For example, in Mahabharata, Krishna’s counsel to Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita is filled with Dhvani, where his words on Dharma (ધર્મ) suggest deeper existential and philosophical meanings. Similarly, in modern literature, works like T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land employ fragmentation and symbolic allusions that rely on Dhvani to engage the reader’s intellect and imagination.

Great literature across cultures—from Kalidasa’s Meghaduta to Shakespeare’s tragedies—thrives on Dhvani, elevating storytelling beyond mere words into an art of nuanced suggestion.

 Key Insights

• Poetry’s soul lies in suggestion (Dhvani), not just in direct meaning.

• Themes, poetic devices, and emotions contribute to different types of Dhvani.

• The interplay of Abhidha (અભિધા), Lakshana (લક્ષણા), and Vyanjana (વ્યંજના) enhances literary depth.

• The theory of Dhvani remains relevant from Sanskrit poetics to modern global literature.

24th January 2025

Dhvani and Vakrokti: Bridging the Mundane and the Transcendent in Poetry

Anandavardhana’s pivotal assertion—

"ध्वनिः काव्यस्य आत्मा" (Dhvaniḥ kāvyasya ātmā)“Dhvani is the soul of poetry”

captures the essence of poetic beauty, emphasizing that true poetry lies not merely in direct expression but in the subtlety of suggestion. Through Dhvani, literature bridges the everyday (Laukik, લૌકિક) and the extraordinary (Alaukik, અલૌકિક), transforming mundane experiences into profound artistic expressions. Complementing this idea, Kuntaka’s Vakrokti (stylistic deviation) enriches poetic aesthetics, asserting that creativity flourishes in unique and oblique expressions. Together, Dhvani and Vakrokti shape the highest ideals of literary beauty.

Dhvani: The Union of the Real and the Transcendent

 Laukik and Alaukik Dimensions

In literary aesthetics, Laukik refers to tangible, worldly experiences, while Alaukik signifies transcendent or symbolic meanings. Anandavardhana argues that Dhvani operates in both dimensions. A compelling example is Victor Hugo’s Les Misérables: Jean Valjean stealing bread is a Laukik event (a real-world act driven by necessity), but the deeper themes of justice, morality, and redemption elevate the narrative into the Alaukik realm.

Three Types of Dhvani

Anandavardhana categorizes Dhvani into three key forms that contribute to poetic depth:

Vastu Dhvani (વસ્તુ ધ્વનિ) – Ideational Suggestion

• This form conveys an idea subtly rather than explicitly stating it.

• Example: "તુ જ્યા જઈશ, ત્યાં હું આવીશ." (Wherever you go, I will follow.) — Suggests unwavering devotion and loyalty rather than a literal pursuit.

Alankara Dhvani (અલંકાર ધ્વનિ) – Figurative Suggestion

• Poetic devices such as metaphors enhance meaning beyond the literal.

• Example: "તારા વિના જીંદગી અંગારા જેવી લાગે." (Without you, life feels like burning coal.) — The metaphor intensifies the feeling of desolation and longing.

Rasa Dhvani (રસ ધ્વનિ) – Emotional Suggestion

• This highest form of Dhvani evokes deep emotional resonance between the text and the reader.

• Example: "તુ જ્યા જઈશ, ત્યાં મારો બીજો જન્મ થશે." (Wherever you go, I will be reborn.) — This poetic line suggests undying love and spiritual connection beyond mortality.

Rasa Dhvani as Supreme Expression

Anandavardhana places Rasa Dhvani at the pinnacle of poetic beauty. He asserts that poetry attains its highest form when it creates an emotional bond between the reader and the work, transforming ordinary language into an experience of profound aesthetic joy (Rasananda, રસાનંદ).

Vakrokti: The Art of Stylistic Deviation

Kuntaka, in his work Vakroktijivit, defines Vakrokti (વક્રોક્તિ) as the beauty of oblique expression. He argues that poetry flourishes not in direct statements but in artistic twists and unique modes of expression. This idea mirrors the innovations of Pablo Picasso, whose cubist paintings abstract reality, making them Alaukik rather than Laukik representations of the world.

Two Key Aspects of Vakrokti

• Āścharya (આશ્ચર્ય) – Wonder: A stylistic twist that initially surprises but is ultimately understood within the artistic framework.

• Vismaya (વિસ્મય) – Astonishment: An unexpected element that leaves a lasting impression, making the expression unforgettable.

Both elements add aesthetic depth, making poetry not just a vehicle for meaning but a work of art in its own right.

The Synthesis of Dhvani and Vakrokti in Literary Tradition

The fusion of Dhvani and Vakrokti ensures that literature transcends simple narration, transforming into an experience that is both intellectually and emotionally profound. Great literary works—whether Sanskrit epics, Western classics, or modern poetry—thrive on these principles:

• Dhvani connects the Laukik (mundane) with the Alaukik (sublime) by embedding deeper meanings within narratives.

• Rasa Dhvani remains the highest form of poetic expression, forging a deep emotional connection between the audience and the work.

• Vakrokti enhances aesthetic appeal by introducing wonder (Āścharya) and astonishment (Vismaya), ensuring artistic uniqueness.

This synthesis elevates poetry beyond mere words, inviting readers to experience literature as a transformative and multilayered art form.

Key Takeaways

• Dhvani’s Dual Nature: It bridges the everyday (Laukik) with the transcendent (Alaukik), making poetry more than just storytelling.

• Three Dimensions of Dhvani: Ideational, figurative, and emotional suggestions deepen poetic meaning and engagement.

• Vakrokti’s Role: Stylistic deviation enhances beauty by infusing poetic language with creative innovation.

• Transformative Impact: The integration of Dhvani and Vakrokti enriches literature, making it an aesthetic and philosophical experience.

As a Sanskrit shloka aptly states:

"काव्य शास्त्र विनोदेन, कालो गच्छति धीमताम्।

व्यसनेन च मूर्खाणां, निद्रयाकलहेन वा।।"

"કાવ્યશાસ્ત્ર વિનોદેન કાલોગચ્છતિ ધીમતામ્"(The wise spend their time in the enjoyment of poetry and philosophy.)

This timeless insight underscores how literature, enriched by Dhvani and Vakrokti, transcends the mundane, transforming human experience into an artistic and intellectual delight.